Rooted in efforts to decolonize and reduce linguistic and cultural imperialism while simultaneously advantaging groups’ cultures and developing English proficiency, this article describes an approach to English language teaching that empowers language learners who wish to share their traditional customs for a global audience. Namely, English for Cultural Transmission (ECT) is a culturally rich and situated language teaching approach that engages learners in collaborative choices of content and curriculum, which are exemplified by a detailed example of a curriculum entitled English for Dharma Purposes (EDP), developed alongside Buddhist monastics in the Himalayan region. The goals of this article are to situate this approach in English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and to encourage curriculum development projects and discussions with colleagues.
Keywords: decolonization; linguistic imperialism; English Language Teaching (ELT) English for specific purposes (ESP); curriculum design; teaching culture
Introduction
English Language Teaching (ELT) program curricula currently remain grounded in perpetuating globally predominant socioeconomic, political, and ontological perspectives. ELT is etic, being generally planned by publishing companies, curriculum specialists, and/or language educators and taught to students. Furthermore, attempts to incorporate learners’ cultures often remain superficial and based upon easily observable artifacts such as holidays, food, and daily activities. The belief systems and traditions central to a cultural worldview are often lacking. The approach presented in this article aims to further the evolution of ELT as a tool to preserve, empower, and enrich humanity’s diverse cultural landscape. The concept of English for Cultural Transmission (ECT) builds on the foundation of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) because it focuses on a specific knowledge area.
The goals of English for cultural transmission
ECT aims very explicitly to support cultural emissaries to speak English on behalf of their traditions and for their own purposes. ECT is an ELT approach that empowers language learners through curricula designed in conjunction with them and serving their goals. To accomplish this, the language professional assists learners in representing and situating their culture within a larger historical, sociocultural, and economic background while simultaneously providing English linguistic, pedagogical, and curricular insights. As learners identify those aspects of their culture they wish to impart to others, they also develop the English language proficiency to do so.
ECT builds upon cultural inclusion efforts within ELT, while seeking to enhance the cultural breadth and depth of ELT globally. ECT places the learners’ emic knowledge into global conversations. Central to this work is the willingness to develop an anthropological mindset and to interrogate one’s own culturally held assumptions. One must be willing to consciously acknowledge and potentially suspend one’s own fundamental beliefs.
It is vital to outline what the parameters of ECT exclude. The authors are not proposing the further dissemination of the English language solely for the purpose of empowering world citizens to join the global economy. Nor are we interested in causing learners to abandon some of the more nuanced aspects of their cultural identity in the process of conveying it worldwide. The focus of ECT is to support long-standing and dynamic cultural traditions endemic to particular regions, and not for proselytizing or imposing dominant worldviews.
A brief overview of teaching culture(s) in ELT
With the understanding that culture informs language use (Jiang, 2000; Rashid et al., 2022), English language teaching (ELT) has traditionally included explicit discussions of the target language culture (Gholson & Stumpf, 2005; Kidwell, 2019; Young et al., 2009) and implicit cultural messaging based on the educators’ instructional choices (Stauffer, 2020).
From the 16th to 19th centuries, American, Australian, and British colonizers spoke English, and through its use, the values and beliefs of colonizers spread throughout the world. During colonization, English was often imposed on colonized peoples, serving as a tool for administrative control and cultural dominance (Phillipson, 1992, 2009). Furthermore, indigenous languages were suppressed or expressly forbidden (Heller & McElhinny, 2017; Shakib, 2011). This imposition has disrupted indigenous languages and cultures, often leading to their marginalization.
Since the 1990s, perspectives on ELT have shifted to encourage English language educators to use culturally congruent and responsive pedagogy (Chen & Yang, 2017; Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2014; Paris, 2012) to align instruction with learners’ home cultures and reduce cognitive and cultural dissonance in the classroom (Smith, 2019). Meanwhile, academic discussions of linguistic and cultural imperialism and decolonization (Canagarajah, 1999; Pennycook, 2007, 2021; Zeng et al., 2023) have influenced how ELT educators chose cultural topics for their global classrooms.
In the post-colonial era, the decolonization of English involves reclaiming linguistic and cultural identities by re-evaluating the role of English, promoting multilingualism, integrating local languages and perspectives into curricula, and fostering an environment where English is used as a tool for global communication rather than cultural subjugation (Kubota, 2014, 2020; Macedo, 2019; Motha, 2014; Ndlangamandla, 2024; Pennycook, 2021). This work aligns with Kumaravadivelu’s call for “Preparing teaching materials that are not only suited to the goals and objectives of learning and teaching in a specific context, but also responsive to the instructional strategies designed by local professionals” (2016, p. 81). Decolonizing ELT aims to balance the practical benefits of its global reach with respect for linguistic diversity and cultural heritage.
Significance
We propose that ECT is urgently needed because it empowers wisdom elders and tradition holders of our rich, diverse ethnosphere, “the sum total of all thoughts, beliefs, myths and intuitions made manifest today by the myriad cultures of the world” (Davis, 2007, p. x) to share their cultural and linguistic priorities. Many cultural ‘insiders’ are disappearing, and the cultural diversity they represent is shrinking at an alarming rate. The current rate of linguistic extinction will result in 90% of human languages becoming moribund by the end of the century (Zhang and Mace, 2021). These extinctions result not only in the irretrievable loss of systems of communication, but also the death of the world views, revealed wisdom, unique capabilities, and insights inherent within the cultures they represent.
ECT is needed to ensure that humanity does not subsume the profound insights of endangered cultural treasures into a cultural melting pot. Academic representations of cultures, through even the most sympathetic of cultural liaisons, are filtered through a subconscious lens that reinterprets them. Representatives of both linguistic and cultural backgrounds who undertake the work conscientiously in a sustained collaboration can overcome this challenge. The authors’ opinion is that the way forward is to equip English educators to serve as the linguistic bridge builders to ensure the integrity and diversity of our collective human cultural fabric remains intact. Furthermore, preparation of ELT educators should include how to collaborate respectfully with English learners in the co-creation of curriculum.
Elements of an ECT course
The ELT educator should steep themselves in knowledge of conducting needs assessments for constituent groups, and curricular design focusing on target language features in addition to the cultural knowledge. Educators should build an anthropological mindset (Brown et al., 2017), an awareness of their own cultural unconscious (Hall, 1989) as well as a recognition of one’s own unexamined assumptions.
Working in tandem with cultural representatives, the ELT educator can co-create a curriculum map that:
- Integrates fundamentals of English language instruction (e.g., language functions, lexicogrammar, and linguistic concepts);
- Explores differences in non-verbal systems and/or non-linguistic means of communication, such as kinesics, proxemics, and paralanguage;
- Includes content and English language elements necessary for members of the target cultural tradition to be able to organize, articulate, and transmit their tradition to members of their own communities as well as other interested members of other cultural groups. The curriculum may include aspects of culture such as:
- Assumptions around the goals and purpose of a human life
- Economics, politics, global studies, and history
- Relationship to the natural world, animacy, and inter-species dynamics
- Family, community, interpersonal relationships, marriage
- Gender and sexuality
- Religion, ritual, spirituality, cosmology
- Life of the mind and psychology
- Sociology, ethics, rules governing behavior, norms, and strictures
- Understandings related to the supernatural
No single ECT curriculum could ever be used as a complete template. Every diverse culture and situation will require different syllabi and projects because it should be negotiated with the learners.
A model of ECT
The English for Dharma Purposes (EDP) curriculum is presented here as an example that aligns with the philosophy and goals of ECT. Appendix A illustrates the scope and sequence of the EDP curriculum. Appendix B offers an example of a lesson from the curriculum. EDP was developed in response to the educational needs of Buddhist monastics from the Himalayan region, whose motivations for learning English are connected to their desire to engage in cultural preservation and the transmission of Buddhist teachings to individuals seeking this learning (Merritt, 2024). For centuries, the Tibetan language has been the home of a vast repository of religious, philosophical, and cultural knowledge. Since religion, philosophy, and culture are deeply intertwined concepts in Tibetan Buddhism (Garfield, 1998), to discuss one fundamentally requires discussion of another. Now, with a dwindling number of native speakers trained as monastics, there is a pressing need to transmit this knowledge into modern languages for preservation for future generations. The presence of traditionally trained cultural ambassadors is necessary in discussions regarding the trajectory of Buddhism and its teachings as it is adopted and expanded globally. Of note, Buddhism does not proselytize because monastics teach only to those who wish to learn. According to Hackett (2014) “dharmaduta (“Dharma-messenger”) activity consists of explaining the Dharma and letting people make up their own minds” (p. 219); however, it is not traditionally a religion of colonizers.
Monastic learners entering general English or academic English programs have met with limited success due to barriers such as a lack of appropriate materials (Phann et al., 2023), gaps in content and cultural knowledge (Supphipat & Chinokul, 2019), and the use of short-term, volunteer teachers in monastic institutes who lack professional training (Thomas, 2022). The collaboration between this Buddhist monastic group and an English educator with the requisite depth of cultural and ELT knowledge allowed for the creation of curricula and materials that addressed the learners’ goals and overcame the barriers that previously impeded students’ progress. Ensuring that the EDP program was culturally relevant was paramount.
EDP did not spring into the world fully formed. It grew organically out of the gaps left in other streams of English language learning. It would not have been possible without a significant investment in time, exposure to the culture, collaboration, and trial and error. It is the product of years spent living in an educational institute in India, analyzing student progress to uncover the gaps in their education, and working with students, teachers, administrators, interested parties, and experts to determine what was needed and how to achieve it. The author did not have an example of another curriculum focused on the goal of cultural transmission by the language learners. Although extended time and depth of cultural exposure is not always possible for a prospective ECT professional, having an anthropological mindset and openness to understand and represent the culture from an emic perspective is essential.
Designing an ECT curriculum
The approach of the EDP curriculum, as an example of ECT, is based on decades of research and methodology in the field of ESP (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998). Built upon this foundation, the design of this curriculum can be broken down into four key components: needs analysis, language analysis, scope and sequence, and assessment.
Needs analysis
Central to the development of EDP is a thorough and robust needs analysis (Brown, 2016). Needs analyses take the form of exams, surveys, and interviews that seek to uncover a broad range of information about the students, who they are, their educational context, their language proficiency, their interests, and their learning attitudes and expectations (Graves, 2000). In this context in particular, employing a student-driven pedagogy (Ananyeva, 2014) is essential; it is reminiscent of the negotiated syllabus (Clarke, 1991).
The educator employs tools such as classroom observations, surveys, and interviews to collect the necessary information. In a culturally focused context, goals, needs, and outcomes cannot be established without direct input from the learner group. In contrast to a standardized exam preparation course, for example, where the educator is the language and skill expert crafting what students need to succeed, in the case of EDP the content experts in the field were the student monastics.
Conducting a needs analysis reveals specific and tangible outcomes. For EDP students, the most commonly desired outcome is the ability to teach Buddhist philosophy to English-speaking practitioners (Merritt, 2024). Early in the development of EDP, monastic students were surveyed and interviewed in order to establish the program goals. These survey results, compiled from data taken before and during the development of EDP, indicated that more than half of the surveyed students wanted to teach Buddhist philosophy in English, and a third wanted to engage in translating scripture from the Tibetan Buddhist canon into English.
Language analysis
After the needs analysis, the educator determined what linguistic concepts were needed to express the learners’ ideas. Language analysis describes a collection of various analyses, including genre conventions (Swales, 1990), language functions (Adolphs, 2008), vocabulary, grammar (Kroeger, 2005), and pronunciation needed by the students to convey their content in the target language. For EDP, this meant understanding what exactly it means to teach Buddhist philosophy to English-speaking practitioners. What does that look like? What genre conventions can be observed? What language functions are being achieved? Which grammatical structures are common? What key vocabulary is used and what vocabulary must remain from Tibetan or Sanskrit? Fortunately for the design of EDP, examples of Buddhist teachings for English-speaking audiences were widely available, including teachings in English from prominent Buddhist leaders such as the Dalai Lama and Thich Nhat Hanh. Teachers describe and explain philosophical concepts, give advice to practitioners, tell stories of the Buddha’s life, share their own anecdotes, and analyze and discuss scripture. Using these teachings as models of language in use offered insight to bridge the gap between the goals, needs, and the final outcomes.
Scope and sequence
With the content and language concepts identified, the scope and sequence are organized to integrate the content concepts with the language in a developmental progression. From the EDP curriculum, Table 1 offers Unit 1 for three levels of student proficiency which illustrates the intersection of content, language functions, grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation targets.
Table 1. EDP Unit 1
| Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | ||
| Unit 1 | Unit | City, Village, Nomad | Buddhism Around the World | The Future of Buddhism |
| Content summary | Students introduce themselves and their family members; they describe emotions and where they are from | Students discuss and analyze the locations, traditions, statistics, origins, and spread of Buddhism around the world | Students explore future issues of Buddhism related to preservation through transmission, translation, reproducing, and digitizing texts and artwork | |
| Pronunciation | /f/ and /v/; /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/ | stressed, unstressed syllables; vowel reduction; /ǝ/ | stress review | |
| Vocabulary | emotions; place, countries, nationalities; family; numbers; jobs | continents, oceans, immigration, spread of Buddhism, future of Buddhism | text preservation, transmission, benefits, challenges, reproduce, preserve, digitize | |
| Grammar | possessive pronouns; subject pronouns; simple present “be” and “have”; possessive ‘s | prepositions of location; past simple questions; future tenses, conjunctions | will, going to, present continuous (to discuss future), future continuous, future perfect | |
| Language Functions | ask and answer, identify | ask and answer, identify, discuss, summarize, predict, compare, explain | brainstorm, rank, justify, rephrase | |
| Task | Introduce yourself and your family. | Describe your traditions and compare them to other Buddhist traditions around the world. | Create a plan for engagement with Buddhist preservation and transmission efforts. |
In Table 1, the content topics “City, Village, Nomad”, “Buddhism Around the World”, and “The Future of Buddhism” are chosen from a developmental perspective, and serve as the basis for choosing readings and teachings. From these items, the essential vocabulary and the patterns of pronunciation and grammar are identified. Language functions students need to develop were aligned with the topic. Each unit concludes with a language task in which students demonstrate their ability to synthesize content and language targets. In Level 1, Unit 1, the task is for students to be able to introduce themselves and their family. As the levels progress, the students are asked to complete progressively more complex content and linguistic tasks; by Level 3, the final task of Unit 1 is to create a plan for their own engagement with Buddhist preservation and transmission efforts.
Assessment
The assessment of learners’ language proficiency has both formative and summative evaluations. These assessments are focused on the learners’ ability to meet the desired outcomes of the unit and ultimately the course. These assessments take the form of traditional tests and performance assessments (e.g., presentations).
Continuing revision
This curriculum process is iterative (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998). Completing it does not conclude the process; rather, it constitutes the first stage of revision, refinement, and continuing attempts. Any ECT program would move through these stages cyclically in development.
Conclusion
Why is ECT a subspecialty of ESP?
We envision ECT as a subspecialty in ESP because it prioritizes and integrates language and content, shares an approach with needs analysis within curriculum development, and bases the outcomes on the learners’ context and goals. As Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p. 6) note, “ESP was not a planned and coherent movement, but rather a phenomenon that grew out of a number of converging trends.” Similarly, ECT and ESP evolve as each unique need and situation requires.
Possible applications of ECT
As ECT emerges within the field, there is much to be explored and developed. It is the authors’ hope that examples of relevant curriculum constructed for these purposes will rapidly increase.
Potential ECT projects are limited only by the imagination and wishes of constituent cultural groups. ELT professionals could collaborate with learners and community leaders to 1) create bilingual children’s books illustrating the myths and foundational values, 2) identify and describe the sociocultural history and significance of buildings (e.g., community center, plaza des armas, religious center) in their hometowns, or 3) research biographies of community leaders, artisans, healers, and elders to share the important contributions of these individuals. More in-depth curriculum projects could include working with wisdom elders to identify the key cultural features to be archived and transmitted for global exchange. Other options may include collaborating with community leaders on comparative and divergent cultural worldviews and how they mutually inform. ECT can support the design of a program about myths and lore for community youth that provides multilingual language development.
Future Developments of ECT
The authors hope to catalyze an increase in the number of academic papers and practical expositions on ECT methodology, and also to invite collaborators with a wide breadth of expertise into the conversation. As the field matures, ECT will benefit from collegial insights, contributions, and perspectives.
Further Reading
Brown, J. D. (2016). Introducing needs analysis and English for specific purposes. Routledge.
Davis, W. (2007). The light at the edge of the world: A journey through the realm of vanishing cultures. Douglas & McIntyre.
Dudley-Evans, T. & St. John, M.J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes. Cambridge University Press.
Engelke, M. (2019). How to think like an anthropologist. Princeton University Press.
Graves, K. (2000). Designing language courses: A guide for teachers. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Discussion questions
- How would you reach out to establish relationships with community leaders and/or tradition holders for the purposes of an ECT project? What would your elevator pitch be?
- What elements of a needs analysis would your project include? What information would you need to successfully design a program? How would you develop the needs analysis?
- How would you integrate the language with the content in your ECT curriculum so that the language is developmental?
- How would you assess the effectiveness of your curriculum? How would you ensure that the goals of the learners are being met?
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Appendix A: Overview of English for Dharma purposes (EDP) curriculum
This resource provides an overview of the EDP curriculum with content summaries for each unit (Merritt, forthcoming).
Appendix B: A sample lesson from EDP
This sample lesson from Level 3, Unit 5 “Comparative Philosophy”, Lesson 1 “Religion or philosophy?” includes both the student book and the teacher’s book, with teaching instruction, suggestions, answers, and options for expansion (Merritt, forthcoming).
